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Illustration showing influenza virus attaching to cell membrane via the surface protein hemagglutinin. Hemagglutinins (alternatively spelt haemagglutinin, from the Greek haima, 'blood' + Latin gluten, 'glue') are homotrimeric glycoproteins present on the protein capsids of viruses in the Paramyxoviridae and Orthomyxoviridae families.
HA and HAI apply the process of hemagglutination, in which sialic acid receptors on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs) bind to the hemagglutinin glycoprotein found on the surface of influenza virus (and several other viruses) and create a network, or lattice structure, of interconnected RBCs and virus particles. [2]
Since hemagglutinin is the major surface protein of the influenza A virus and is essential to the entry process, it is the primary target of neutralizing antibodies. [citation needed] These antibodies against flu have been found to act by two different mechanisms, mirroring the dual functions of hemagglutinin:
Researchers have identified protein signatures in blood tests that can be used to detect or predict up to 67 diseases, using UK Biobank data in a cohort of nearly 42,000 participants.
In blood grouping, the patient's serum is tested against RBCs of known blood groups and also the patient's RBCs are tested against known serum types. In this way the patient's blood group is confirmed from both RBCs and serum. A direct Coombs test is also done on the patient's blood sample in case there are any confounding antibodies.
Sialic acid is a negatively charged sugar associated with the protein and lipid portions of lipoproteins. [ citation needed ] To infect a host cell, the influenza virus attaches to the exterior cell surface using hemagglutinin , a molecule found on the surface of the virus that binds to sialic acid groups.
The HA-tag is a protein tag derived from the human influenza hemagglutinin (HA) protein, which allows the virus to target and enter host cells. An HA-tag is composed of a peptide derived from the HA-molecule corresponding to amino acids 98-106, which can be recognized and selectively bound by commercially available antibodies .
In Bordetella pertussis, the infectious agent in childhood whooping cough, filamentous haemagglutinin (FHA) is a surface-exposed and secreted protein that acts as a major virulence attachment factor, functioning as both a primary adhesin and an immunomodulator to bind the bacterial to cells of the respiratory epithelium. [2]