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Pupillary response is a physiological response that varies the size of the pupil between 1.5 mm and 8 mm, [1] via the optic and oculomotor cranial nerve. A constriction response , [2] is the narrowing of the pupil, which may be caused by scleral buckles or drugs such as opiates/opioids or anti-hypertension medications.
Nerves involved in the resizing of the pupil connect to the pretectal nucleus of the high midbrain, bypassing the lateral geniculate nucleus and the primary visual cortex. From the pretectal nucleus neurons send axons to neurons of the Edinger-Westphal nucleus whose visceromotor axons run along both the left and right oculomotor nerves .
The terms 'opioid' and 'opiate' are sometimes used interchangeably, but the term 'opioid' is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors in the brain. [4] Opiates are alkaloid compounds naturally found in the opium poppy plant Papaver somniferum. [5] [6]
Hydrocodone is used to treat moderate to severe pain. In liquid formulations, it is used to treat cough. [10] In one study comparing the potency of hydrocodone to that of oxycodone, it was found that it took 50% more hydrocodone to achieve the same degree of miosis (pupillary contraction). [26]
When pupils are dilated, it means that they grow larger in size. This can happen for a number of different reasons, including drug use and arousal. 7 reasons why your pupils may be dilated, from ...
The cooperative eye hypothesis was first proposed Michael Tomasello and colleagues in 2007, [1] on the basis of a study by H. Kobayashi and S. Kohshima in 2001. [5] The main tenets of the hypothesis are laid out in an earlier article, [6] but this is not cited in Tomasello and colleagues' 2007 study. It is therefore unclear whether the ...
About 70% of morphine is used to make other opioids such as hydromorphone, oxymorphone, and heroin. [22] [23] [24] It is a Schedule II drug in the United States, [23] Class A in the United Kingdom, [5] and Schedule I in Canada. [25] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. [26]
Some specific depressants do influence mood, either positively (e.g., opioids) or negatively, but depressants often have no clear impact on mood (e.g., most anticonvulsants). In contrast, stimulants, or "uppers", increase mental alertness, making stimulants the opposite drug class from depressants.