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The psychologist Adolf Zeising noted that the golden ratio appeared in phyllotaxis and argued from these patterns in nature that the golden ratio was a universal law. [92] Zeising wrote in 1854 of a universal orthogenetic law of "striving for beauty and completeness in the realms of both nature and art".
The golden spiral is a logarithmic spiral that grows outward by a factor of the golden ratio for every 90 degrees of rotation (pitch angle about 17.03239 degrees). It can be approximated by a "Fibonacci spiral", made of a sequence of quarter circles with radii proportional to Fibonacci numbers.
Many works of art are claimed to have been designed using the golden ratio. However, many of these claims are disputed, or refuted by measurement. [1] The golden ratio, an irrational number, is approximately 1.618; it is often denoted by the Greek letter φ .
Golden spirals are self-similar. The shape is infinitely repeated when magnified. In geometry, a golden spiral is a logarithmic spiral whose growth factor is φ, the golden ratio. [1] That is, a golden spiral gets wider (or further from its origin) by a factor of φ for every quarter turn it makes.
The golden angle is the angle subtended by the smaller (red) arc when two arcs that make up a circle are in the golden ratio. In geometry, the golden angle is the smaller of the two angles created by sectioning the circumference of a circle according to the golden ratio; that is, into two arcs such that the ratio of the length of the smaller arc to the length of the larger arc is the same as ...
Patterns in Nature. Little, Brown & Co. Stewart, Ian (2001). What Shape is a Snowflake? Magical Numbers in Nature. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Patterns from nature (as art) Edmaier, Bernard. Patterns of the Earth. Phaidon Press, 2007. Macnab, Maggie. Design by Nature: Using Universal Forms and Principles in Design. New Riders, 2012. Nakamura, Shigeki.
where θ is the angle, r is the radius or distance from the center, and n is the index number of the floret and c is a constant scaling factor. The angle 137.508° is the golden angle which is approximated by ratios of Fibonacci numbers. [6]
where F n is the nth Fibonacci number. The ratio of numbers of kites to darts in any sufficiently large P2 Penrose tiling pattern therefore approximates to the golden ratio φ. [47] A similar result holds for the ratio of the number of thick rhombs to thin rhombs in the P3 Penrose tiling. [45]