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Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai erupted over a span of 12 hours, releasing 1.9 km 3 (0.46 cu mi) of ejecta with an estimated mass of 2,900 teragrams. Although the eruption energy was soon estimated from the acoustic waves and the ash cloud, its ranking on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is still debated. [63]
Before the 2022 eruption, the highest point in the former Hunga Tonga reached an elevation of 149 m (489 ft), while Hunga Haʻapai was only 128 m (420 ft) above sea level. [7] Neither island was large: before they were connected in 2015, each island was about 2 km (1.2 mi) long, with Hunga Tonga being roughly 390,000 m 2 (0.15 sq mi) and Hunga ...
10–25 km (6–16 mi) ... with a VEI of 8, ... The underwater volcano Hunga Tonga in Tonga breached sea level in 2009. Both of its vents exhibited Surtseyan activity ...
Others include the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, and the 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai eruption. Over 20% of all fatalities caused by volcanism during the past 250 years are estimated to have been caused by volcanogenic tsunamis. [48]
It has a total area of 28,896 square kilometres (11,157 sq mi), [9] and a population of 734,887 according to the official estimates for mid-2023. [10] Its capital and largest city, Honiara, is located on the largest island, Guadalcanal.
On July 10, 2002, the west wall of the crater collapsed, slowly releasing approximately 160 million cubic meters (5.7 × 10 ^ 9 cu ft) of water and sediment into the Maraunot River in Botolan, Zambales. [23] On July 26, 2011, a 5.9 magnitude earthquake struck close to Pinatubo; however, no major damages or casualties were reported. [24]
Rarotonga is a kidney-shaped volcanic island, 32 km (20 mi) in circumference, and 11.2 km (7.0 mi) wide on its longest (east-west) axis. [3] The island is the summit of an extinct Pliocene or Pleistocene volcano, which rises 5,000 metres (16,000 feet) from the seafloor. [4]
20 June: a study in Nature Food suggests global food miles CO 2 emissions are 3.5–7.5 times higher than previously estimated, with transport accounting for about 19% of total food-system emissions, [39] [40] albeit shifting towards plant-based diets remains substantially more important. [41]