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Excessive glutamate release can overstimulate the brain and lead to excitotoxicity causing cell death resulting in seizures or strokes. [22] Excitotoxicity has been implicated in certain chronic diseases including ischemic stroke , epilepsy , amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , Alzheimer's disease , Huntington disease , and Parkinson's disease .
Stimulation of the receptors activate peripheral sensory neurons that convey signals to the spinal cord that may drive a responsive reflex, and may also be conveyed to the brain for conscious perception. Somatosensory information from the face and head enter the brain via cranial nerves such as the trigeminal nerve.
Peripherally selective drugs have their primary mechanism of action outside of the central nervous system (CNS), usually because they are excluded from the CNS by the blood–brain barrier. By being excluded from the CNS, drugs may act on the rest of the body without producing side-effects related to their effects on the brain or spinal cord.
The serotonin created by the brain comprises around 10% of total body serotonin. The majority (80-90%) is found in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. [15] [16] It travels around the brain along the medial forebrain bundle and acts on serotonin receptors. In the peripheral nervous system (such as in the gut wall) serotonin regulates vascular tone.
The use of peripheral nerve stimulation, or PNS, for the relief of chronic pain states was first reported over 30 years ago. [6] Recent studies have demonstrated that electrical stimulation of nerves leads to inhibitory input to the pain pathways at the spinal cord level. [ 7 ]
Peripheral chemoreceptors work in concert with central chemoreceptors, which also monitor blood CO 2 but do it in the cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the brain. A high concentration of central chemoreceptors is found in the ventral medulla, the brainstem area that receives input from peripheral chemoreceptors. [12]
Chronic subcortical electrode implant in a laboratory rat used to deliver electrical stimulation to the brain. Electrical brain stimulation (EBS), also referred to as focal brain stimulation (FBS), is a form of electrotherapy used as a technique in research and clinical neurobiology to stimulate a neuron or neural network in the brain through the direct or indirect excitation of its cell ...
A neural pathway connects one part of the nervous system to another using bundles of axons called tracts. The optic tract that extends from the optic nerve is an example of a neural pathway because it connects the eye to the brain; additional pathways within the brain connect to the visual cortex.