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Two-level utilitarianism is a utilitarian theory of ethics according to which a person's moral decisions should be based on a set of moral rules, except in certain rare situations where it is more appropriate to engage in a 'critical' level of moral reasoning. The theory was initially developed by R. M. Hare. [1]
Utilitarianism is a version of consequentialism, which states that the consequences of any action are the only standard of right and wrong. Unlike other forms of consequentialism, such as egoism and altruism, egalitarian utilitarianism considers either the interests of all humanity or all sentient beings equally.
In ethics, Smart was a defender of utilitarianism. Specifically, he defended "extreme", or act utilitarianism, as opposed to "restricted", or rule utilitarianism. The distinction between these two types of ethical theory is explained in his essay Extreme and Restricted Utilitarianism. [14] Smart gave two arguments against rule utilitarianism.
A utilitarian argument against torture is that torture is most often employed as a method of terrorizing and subjugating the population, not as a method of extracting information. This enables state forces to dispense with ordinary means of establishing innocence or guilt and with the whole legal apparatus altogether. [9]
In the context of resource allocation, the utilitarian rule leads to: A particular rule for division of a single homogeneous resource; Several rules and algorithms for utilitarian cake-cutting – dividing a heterogeneous resource; A particular rule for fair item allocation. [9] Welfare maximization problem.
The demandingness objection is a common [1] [2] argument raised against utilitarianism and other consequentialist ethical theories. The consequentialist requirement that we maximize the good impartially seems to this objection to require us to perform acts that we would normally consider optional.
Utilitarianism is an 1861 essay written by English philosopher and economist John Stuart Mill, considered to be a classic exposition and defense of utilitarianism in ethics. It was originally published as a series of three separate articles in Fraser's Magazine in 1861 before it was collected and reprinted as a single work in 1863. [ 1 ]
The term "negative utilitarianism" was introduced by R. N. Smart in his 1958 reply to Karl Popper's book [9] The Open Society and Its Enemies, published in 1945. [10] In the book, Popper emphasizes the importance of preventing suffering in public policy. [11]