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The second and third lines of defense operate by making changes to the buffers, each of which consists of two components: a weak acid and its conjugate base. [ 5 ] [ 13 ] It is the ratio concentration of the weak acid to its conjugate base that determines the pH of the solution. [ 14 ]
In the first line of defense, inhaled bacteria are trapped by mucus and are swept toward the pharynx and are swallowed. [1] Bacteria which penetrate the mucous layer are dealt with a second line of defense which includes antimicrobial peptides that are secreted by the surface epithelium of the respiratory tract which kill many strains of ...
An immune response is a physiological reaction which occurs within an organism in the context of inflammation for the purpose of defending against exogenous factors. These include a wide variety of different toxins, viruses, intra- and extracellular bacteria, protozoa, helminths, and fungi which could cause serious problems to the health of the host organism if not cleared from the body.
A scanning electron microscope image of a single neutrophil (yellow/right), engulfing anthrax bacteria (orange/left) – scale bar is 5 μm (false color). The immune system is a network of biological systems that protects an organism from diseases.
TLRs are a major class of pattern recognition receptor, that exists in all coelomates (animals with a body-cavity), including humans. [35] The complement system exists in most life forms. Some invertebrates, including various insects, crabs , and worms utilize a modified form of the complement response known as the prophenoloxidase (proPO) system.
Gross anatomy – study of anatomy at the macroscopic level; Histology – also known as microscopic anatomy or microanatomy, the branch of biology which studies the microscopic anatomy of biological tissues. Neuroanatomy – the study of the nervous system. Osteology – study of bones. Radiographic anatomy – study of anatomy through radiography
Complement proteins are proteins that play a role in the non-specific immune responses alongside these non-specific immune cells to make up the first line of immune defense. [4] The non-specific immune response is an immediate antigen-independent response, however it is not antigen-specific. Non-specific immunity results in no immunologic memory.
Defense physiology is a term used to refer to the symphony of body function changes which occur in response to a stress or threat.. When the body executes the "fight-or-flight" reaction or stress response, the nervous system initiates, coordinates and directs specific changes in how the body is functioning, preparing the body to deal with the threat. [1]