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LEVITUS94 is the World Ocean Atlas as of 1994, an atlas of objectively analyzed fields of major ocean parameters at the annual, seasonal, and monthly time scales. It is superseded by WOA98. NOAA NODC WOA98 is the World Ocean Atlas as of 1998, an atlas of objectively analyzed fields of major ocean parameters at monthly, seasonal, and annual time ...
The climate of Indonesia is almost entirely tropical. The uniformly warm waters that make up 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that temperatures on land remain fairly constant, with the coastal plains averaging 28 °C (82 °F), the inland and mountain areas averaging 26 °C (79 °F), and the higher mountain regions, 23 °C (73 °F).
The Revelle factor (buffer factor) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide (CO 2) to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO 2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer. [1]
The mean sea level rise globally was 3–10 mm per year, while the subsidence rate for Jakarta was around 75–100 mm per year, making the relative rise in sea level nearly 10 cm per year. [39] Continued carbon emissions at the 2019 rate, in combination with unlicensed groundwater extraction, is predicted to immerse 95% of Northern Jakarta by 2050.
Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2) concentrations from 1958 to 2023. The Keeling Curve is a graph of the annual variation and overall accumulation of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory on the island of Hawaii from 1958 to the present day.
Land surface temperatures have increased faster than ocean temperatures as the ocean absorbs about 92% of excess heat generated by climate change. [10] Chart with data from NASA [11] showing how land and sea surface air temperatures have changed vs a pre-industrial baseline.
Conversely, a body of water with a pCO 2 greater than that of the atmosphere effluxes carbon dioxide. [4] [5] pCO 2 is additionally affected by water temperature and salinity. Carbon dioxide is less soluble in warmer water than cooler water, so hot water will exhibit a larger pCO 2 than cold water with the same concentration of carbon dioxide.
By doing so, the ocean has acted as a buffer, somewhat slowing the rise in atmospheric CO 2 levels. However, this absorption of anthropogenic CO 2 has also caused acidification of the oceans. [8] [10] Climate change, a result of this excess CO 2 in the atmosphere, has increased the temperature of the ocean and atmosphere. [11]