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Primitive root modulo m: A number g is a primitive root modulo m if, for every integer a coprime to m, there is an integer k such that g k ≡ a (mod m). A primitive root modulo m exists if and only if m is equal to 2, 4, p k or 2p k, where p is an odd prime number and k is a positive integer.
The most direct method of calculating a modular exponent is to calculate b e directly, then to take this number modulo m. Consider trying to compute c, given b = 4, e = 13, and m = 497: c ≡ 4 13 (mod 497) One could use a calculator to compute 4 13; this comes out to 67,108,864. Taking this value modulo 497, the answer c is determined to be 445.
Given two positive numbers a and n, a modulo n (often abbreviated as a mod n) is the remainder of the Euclidean division of a by n, where a is the dividend and n is the divisor. [ 1 ] For example, the expression "5 mod 2" evaluates to 1, because 5 divided by 2 has a quotient of 2 and a remainder of 1, while "9 mod 3" would evaluate to 0 ...
In modular arithmetic, a number g is a primitive root modulo n if every number a coprime to n is congruent to a power of g modulo n. That is, g is a primitive root modulo n if for every integer a coprime to n, there is some integer k for which g k ≡ a (mod n). Such a value k is called the index or discrete logarithm of a to the base g modulo n.
The congruence relation, modulo m, partitions the set of integers into m congruence classes. Operations of addition and multiplication can be defined on these m objects in the following way: To either add or multiply two congruence classes, first pick a representative (in any way) from each class, then perform the usual operation for integers on the two representatives and finally take the ...
OEIS sequence A033948 (Numbers that have a primitive root (the multiplicative group modulo n is cyclic)) Numbers n such that the multiplicative group modulo n is the direct product of k cyclic groups: k = 2 OEIS sequence A272592 (2 cyclic groups) k = 3 OEIS sequence A272593 (3 cyclic groups) k = 4 OEIS sequence A272594 (4 cyclic groups)
Number-theoretic transforms in the integers modulo 337 are used, selecting 85 as an 8th root of unity. Base 10 is used in place of base 2 w for illustrative purposes. Every number in base B, can be written as a polynomial:
The modular inverse of aR mod N is REDC((aR mod N) −1 (R 3 mod N)). Modular exponentiation can be done using exponentiation by squaring by initializing the initial product to the Montgomery representation of 1, that is, to R mod N, and by replacing the multiply and square steps by Montgomery multiplies.
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