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In calculus, integration by substitution, also known as u-substitution, reverse chain rule or change of variables, [1] is a method for evaluating integrals and antiderivatives. It is the counterpart to the chain rule for differentiation , and can loosely be thought of as using the chain rule "backwards."
The intent is that when expressed in new variables, the problem may become simpler, or equivalent to a better understood problem. Change of variables is an operation that is related to substitution. However these are different operations, as can be seen when considering differentiation or integration (integration by substitution). A very simple ...
The substitution is described in most integral calculus textbooks since the late 19th century, usually without any special name. [5] It is known in Russia as the universal trigonometric substitution, [6] and also known by variant names such as half-tangent substitution or half-angle substitution.
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The rectangular region at the bottom of the body is the domain of integration, while the surface is the graph of the two-variable function to be integrated. In mathematics (specifically multivariable calculus ), a multiple integral is a definite integral of a function of several real variables , for instance, f ( x , y ) or f ( x , y , z ) .
A variable n is bound if it is in the scope of at least n binders (λ); otherwise it is free. The binding site for a variable n is the nth binder it is in the scope of, starting from the innermost binder. The most primitive operation on λ-terms is substitution: replacing free variables in a term with
The substitution rule states that for any φ and any term t, one can conclude φ[t/x] from φ provided that no free variable of t becomes bound during the substitution process. (If some free variable of t becomes bound, then to substitute t for x it is first necessary to change the bound variables of φ to differ from the free variables of t.)
Also a variable is bound by its nearest abstraction. In the following example the single occurrence of x in the expression is bound by the second lambda: λx.y (λx.z x). The set of free variables of a lambda expression, M, is denoted as FV(M) and is defined by recursion on the structure of the terms, as follows: FV(x) = {x}, where x is a variable.
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