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Fundamental theorem of calculus; Integration by parts; Inverse chain rule method; Integration by substitution. Tangent half-angle substitution; Differentiation under the integral sign; Trigonometric substitution; Partial fractions in integration. Quadratic integral; Proof that 22/7 exceeds π; Trapezium rule; Integral of the secant function ...
The calculus of variations began with the work of Isaac Newton, such as with Newton's minimal resistance problem, which he formulated and solved in 1685, and later published in his Principia in 1687, [2] which was the first problem in the field to be formulated and correctly solved, [2] and was also one of the most difficult problems tackled by variational methods prior to the twentieth century.
Calculus is also used to find approximate solutions to equations; in practice, it is the standard way to solve differential equations and do root finding in most applications. Examples are methods such as Newton's method, fixed point iteration, and linear approximation.
The original text continues to be available as of 2008 from Macmillan and Co., but a 1998 update by Martin Gardner is available from St. Martin's Press which provides an introduction; three preliminary chapters explaining functions, limits, and derivatives; an appendix of recreational calculus problems; and notes for modern readers. [1]
In calculus, the Leibniz integral rule for differentiation under the integral sign, named after Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, states that for an integral of the form () (,), where < (), < and the integrands are functions dependent on , the derivative of this integral is expressible as (() (,)) = (, ()) (, ()) + () (,) where the partial derivative indicates that inside the integral, only the ...
Keisler then gives a few examples of real statements to which the principle applies: Closure law for addition: for any x and y, the sum x + y is defined. Commutative law for addition: x + y = y + x. A rule for order: if 0 < x < y then 0 < 1/y < 1/x. Division by zero is never allowed: x/0 is undefined.
the function f is n − 1 times continuously differentiable on the closed interval [a, b] and the n th derivative exists on the open interval (a, b), and; there are n intervals given by a 1 < b 1 ≤ a 2 < b 2 ≤ ⋯ ≤ a n < b n in [a, b] such that f (a k) = f (b k) for every k from 1 to n. Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that the n ...
The slope field of () = +, showing three of the infinitely many solutions that can be produced by varying the arbitrary constant c.. In calculus, an antiderivative, inverse derivative, primitive function, primitive integral or indefinite integral [Note 1] of a continuous function f is a differentiable function F whose derivative is equal to the original function f.