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The Fagerström Test for Nicotine dependence is a standard instrument for assessing the intensity of addiction to nicotine. It evaluates the quantity of cigarette consumption, the compulsion to use, and dependence.
Nicotine withdrawal is a group of symptoms that occur in the first few weeks after stopping or decreasing use of nicotine.Symptoms include intense cravings for nicotine, anger or irritability, anxiety, depression, impatience, trouble sleeping, restlessness, hunger, weight gain, and difficulty concentrating.
Smoking cessation, usually called quitting smoking or stopping smoking, is the process of discontinuing tobacco smoking. [1] Tobacco smoke contains nicotine, which is addictive and can cause dependence. [2] [3] As a result, nicotine withdrawal often makes the process of quitting difficult.
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After 30 years of heavy smoking, Carr quit in 1983, at the age of 48. He subsequently left his job as an accountant in the same year and opened the first "easiest way" clinic, to help other addicts. Carr wrote a number of books intended to lead to smoking cessation and loss of excess weight, some of which were best sellers. [7]
The health effects of tobacco had been debated by users, medical experts, and governments alike since its introduction to European culture. [1] Hard evidence for the ill effects of smoking became apparent with the results of several long-term studies conducted in the early to middle twentieth century, such as the epidemiology studies of Richard Doll and pathology studies of Oscar Auerbach.
A systematic review found five RCTs to have assessed the effects of immunoglobulin treatment for ME/CFS; [42] of these, two RCTs showed an overall beneficial effect and two RCTs showed some positive results, although in one of the studies this was for physiological effects only. The largest of the RCTs found no effect for the treatment.
Fatigue in a medical context is used to cover experiences of low energy that are not caused by normal life. [2] [3]A 2021 review proposed a definition for fatigue as a starting point for discussion: "A multi-dimensional phenomenon in which the biophysiological, cognitive, motivational and emotional state of the body is affected resulting in significant impairment of the individual's ability to ...