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Medications that lower seizure threshold include the antidepressant and nicotinic antagonist bupropion, the atypical opioid analgesics tramadol and tapentadol, reserpine, [1] theophylline, [2] antibiotics (fluoroquinolones, imipenem, penicillins, cephalosporins, metronidazole, isoniazid) and volatile anesthetics. So can other factors, including:
Seizures are particularly notable due to tramadol's lowering of the seizure threshold, occurring in approximately half of acute poisoning cases. [43] Patients often exhibit tachycardia and mild hypertension. Gastrointestinal disturbances such as nausea and vomiting are common, and agitation, anxiety, and cold and clammy skin may also be present ...
Threshold dose is the minimum dose of drug that triggers minimal detectable biological effect in an animal. [1] At extremely low doses, biological responses are absent for some of the drugs. The increase in dose above threshold dose induces an increase in the percentage of biological responses. [ 2 ]
(+)-Desmetramadol is a G-protein biased μ-opioid receptor full agonist. [5] It shows comparatively far lower affinity for the δ-and κ-opioid receptors. [6] The two enantiomers of desmetramadol show quite distinct pharmacological profiles; [7] both (+) and (−)-desmetramadol are inactive as serotonin reuptake inhibitors, [8] but (−)-desmetramadol retains activity as a norepinephrine ...
Bradycardia; Hypertension (high blood pressure); Allergic reactions (e.g. dyspnoea (shortness of breath), bronchospasm, wheezing, angioneurotic oedema) Anaphylaxis; Changes in appetite
In 1934, camphor-induced and pentylenetetrazol-induced brain seizures were first used to relieve psychiatric illnesses. But camphor was found ineffective. In 1957, inhalant anesthetic flurothyl was tested and found to be clinically effective in the induction of seizures, even though certain risks persisted.
Anticonvulsants suppress the excessive rapid firing of neurons during seizures. [6] Anticonvulsants also prevent the spread of the seizure within the brain. [7] Conventional antiepileptic drugs may block sodium channels or enhance γ-aminobutyric acid function. Several antiepileptic drugs have multiple or uncertain mechanisms of action. [8]
"Pain ladder", or analgesic ladder, was created by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a guideline for the use of drugs in the management of pain. Originally published in 1986 for the management of cancer pain, it is now widely used by medical professionals for the management of all types of pain.