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  2. Causal notation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_notation

    In nature and human societies, many phenomena have causal relationships where one phenomenon A (a cause) impacts another phenomenon B (an effect). Establishing causal relationships is the aim of many scientific studies across fields ranging from biology [ 1 ] and physics [ 2 ] to social sciences and economics . [ 3 ]

  3. Causal inference - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_inference

    Causal inference is the process of determining the independent, actual effect of a particular phenomenon that is a component of a larger system. The main difference between causal inference and inference of association is that causal inference analyzes the response of an effect variable when a cause of the effect variable is changed.

  4. Climate change in Pakistan - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_Pakistan

    The Ministry of Climate Change Urdu: وزارتِ موسمیاتی تبدیلی, wazarat-e- mosmyati tabdeeli (abbreviated as MoCC), is a Cabinet-level ministry of the Government of Pakistan concerned with climate change in Pakistan.

  5. Bradford Hill criteria - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradford_Hill_criteria

    In 1965, the English statistician Sir Austin Bradford Hill proposed a set of nine criteria to provide epidemiologic evidence of a causal relationship between a presumed cause and an observed effect. (For example, he demonstrated the connection between cigarette smoking and lung cancer.) The list of the criteria is as follows: [1]

  6. Causation (sociology) - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causation_(sociology)

    Causation refers to the existence of "cause and effect" relationships between multiple variables. [1] Causation presumes that variables, which act in a predictable manner, can produce change in related variables and that this relationship can be deduced through direct and repeated observation. [2]

  7. Causal reasoning - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_reasoning

    In common-effect relationships, several causes converge in one effect: Example of multiple causes with a single effect An increase in government spending is an example of one effect with several causes (reduced unemployment, decreased currency value, and increased deficit). In causal chains one cause triggers an effect, which triggers another ...

  8. The Book of Why - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Why

    An example of reasoning on this first level is the observation that a crowing rooster is associated with the sunrise. However, this kind of reasoning cannot describe causal relations. For example, we cannot say whether the sunrise causes the rooster to crow, or whether the rooster causes the sun to rise.

  9. Causality - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality

    In Part III, section XV of his book A Treatise of Human Nature, Hume expanded this to a list of eight ways of judging whether two things might be cause and effect. The first three: "The cause and effect must be contiguous in space and time." "The cause must be prior to the effect." "There must be a constant union betwixt the cause and effect.