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  2. Fermion - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermion

    Fermions differ from bosons, which obey Bose–Einstein statistics. Some fermions are elementary particles (such as electrons), and some are composite particles (such as protons). For example, according to the spin-statistics theorem in relativistic quantum field theory, particles with integer spin are bosons.

  3. Boson - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boson

    Composite particles (such as hadrons, nuclei, and atoms) can be bosons or fermions depending on their constituents. Since bosons have integer spin and fermions odd half-integer spin, any composite particle made up of an even number of fermions is a boson. Composite bosons include: All mesons of every type

  4. Elementary particle - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle

    Bosons differ from fermions in the fact that multiple bosons can occupy the same quantum state (Pauli exclusion principle). Also, bosons can be either elementary, like photons, or a combination, like mesons. The spin of bosons are integers instead of half integers.

  5. List of particles - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_particles

    Bosons are one of the two fundamental particles having integral spinclasses of particles, the other being fermions. Bosons are characterized by Bose–Einstein statistics and all have integer spins. Bosons may be either elementary, like photons and gluons, or composite, like mesons. According to the Standard Model, the elementary bosons are:

  6. Indistinguishable particles - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indistinguishable_particles

    There are two main categories of identical particles: bosons, which can share quantum states, and fermions, which cannot (as described by the Pauli exclusion principle). Examples of bosons are photons, gluons, phonons, helium-4 nuclei and all mesons. Examples of fermions are electrons, neutrinos, quarks, protons, neutrons, and helium-3 nuclei.

  7. Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_formulation...

    Additionally, we know experimentally that the W and Z bosons are massive, but a boson mass term contains the combination e.g. A μ A μ, which clearly depends on the choice of gauge. Therefore, none of the standard model fermions or bosons can "begin" with mass, but must acquire it by some other mechanism.

  8. Composite boson - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_boson

    A composite boson is a bound state of fermions such that the combination gives a boson. [1] Examples include Cooper pairs, semiconductor excitons, mesons, superfluid helium, Bose–Einstein condensates, atomic bosons, and fermionic condensates. A composite particle containing an even number of fermions is a boson, since it has integer spin.

  9. Standard Model - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Model

    As a result, they do not follow the Pauli exclusion principle that constrains fermions; bosons do not have a theoretical limit on their spatial density. The types of gauge bosons are described below. Electromagnetism: Photons mediate the electromagnetic force, responsible for interactions between electrically charged particles.