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Further, confirmation biases can sustain scientific theories or research programs in the face of inadequate or even contradictory evidence. [60] [95] The discipline of parapsychology is often cited as an example. [96] An experimenter's confirmation bias can potentially affect which data are reported.
Confirmation bias takes effect in the later stages of selective attention, when the individual has already started noticing the specific stimulus. By focusing on this specific stimulus, the individual notices it more, therefore confirming their suspicions of it occurring more frequently, even though in reality the frequency has not changed.
Turkey illusion is a cognitive bias describing the surprise resulting from a break in a trend, if one does not know the causes or the framework conditions for this trend. [1] The concept was first introduced by Bertrand Russell [ 2 ] to illustrate a problem with inductive reasoning .
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions. [32] There are multiple other cognitive biases which involve or are types of confirmation bias: Backfire effect, a tendency to react to disconfirming evidence by strengthening one's previous beliefs. [33]
Selective exposure is a theory within the practice of psychology, often used in media and communication research, that historically refers to individuals' tendency to favor information which reinforces their pre-existing views while avoiding contradictory information.
Behavioral confirmation is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations. [1] The phenomenon of belief creating reality is known by several names in literature: self-fulfilling prophecy, expectancy confirmation, and behavioral confirmation ...
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However, confirmation bias is mainly a sub-conscious (innate) cognitive bias. In contrast, motivated reasoning (motivational bias) is a sub-conscious or conscious process by which one's emotions control the evidence supported or dismissed. For confirmation bias, the evidence or arguments can be logical as well as emotional.