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The four Mertonian norms (often abbreviated as the CUDO-norms) can be summarised as: communism: all scientists should have common ownership of scientific goods (intellectual property), to promote collective collaboration; secrecy is the opposite of this norm.
Kuhn stressed that historically, the route to normal science could be a difficult one. Prior to the formation of a shared paradigm or research consensus, would-be scientists were reduced to the accumulation of random facts and unverified observations, in the manner recorded by Pliny the Elder or Francis Bacon, [4] while simultaneously beginning the foundations of their field from scratch ...
A convention influences a set of agreed, stipulated, or generally accepted standards, social norms, or other criteria, often taking the form of a custom.. In physical sciences, numerical values (such as constants, quantities, or scales of measurement) are called conventional if they do not represent a measured property of nature, but originate in a convention, for example an average of many ...
If a theory does not require modification despite repeated tests, this implies that the theory is very accurate. This also means that accepted theories continue to accumulate evidence over time, and the length of time that a theory (or any of its principles) remains accepted often indicates the strength of its supporting evidence. [citation needed]
There are many philosophical and historical theories as to how scientific consensus changes over time. Because the history of scientific change is extremely complicated, and because there is a tendency to project "winners" and "losers" onto the past in relation to the current scientific consensus, it is very difficult to come up with accurate and rigorous models for scientific change. [17]
For example, an individual plant might receive either more or less water during its growth cycle, or the average temperature the plants are exposed to might vary across a range. A simplification of the norm of reaction might state that seed line A is good for "high water conditions" while a seed line B is good for "low water conditions".
By contrast, the National Children's Reading Foundation believes that it is essential to assure that virtually all children read at or above grade level by third grade, a goal which cannot be achieved with a norm-referenced definition of grade level. [11] Norms do not automatically imply a standard. A norm-referenced test does not seek to ...
In algebraic number theory one defines also norms for ideals. This is done in such a way that if I is a nonzero ideal of O K, the ring of integers of the number field K, N(I) is the number of residue classes in / – i.e. the cardinality of this finite ring. Hence this ideal norm is always a positive integer.