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  2. Exponentiation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation

    If n is a negative integer, is defined only if x has a multiplicative inverse. [35] In this case, the inverse of x is denoted x −1, and x n is defined as (). Exponentiation with integer exponents obeys the following laws, for x and y in the algebraic structure, and m and n integers:

  3. Exponentiation by squaring - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation_by_squaring

    The method is based on the observation that, for any integer >, one has: = {() /, /,. If the exponent n is zero then the answer is 1. If the exponent is negative then we can reuse the previous formula by rewriting the value using a positive exponent.

  4. Exponential function - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_function

    Exponential functions with bases 2 and 1/2. In mathematics, the exponential function is the unique real function which maps zero to one and has a derivative equal to its value. . The exponential of a variable ⁠ ⁠ is denoted ⁠ ⁡ ⁠ or ⁠ ⁠, with the two notations used interchangeab

  5. Lyapunov exponent - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyapunov_exponent

    There are no inherent limitations on the number of variables, parameters etc. Lyap which includes source code written in Fortran, can also calculate the Lyapunov direction vectors and can characterize the singularity of the attractor, which is the main reason for difficulties in calculating the more negative exponents from time series data.

  6. Modular exponentiation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_exponentiation

    Inputs An integer b (base), integer e (exponent), and a positive integer m (modulus) Outputs The modular exponent c where c = b e mod m. Initialise c = 1 and loop variable e′ = 0; While e′ < e do Increment e′ by 1; Calculate c = (b ⋅ c) mod m; Output c; Note that at the end of every iteration through the loop, the equation c ≡ b e ...

  7. Power of two - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_of_two

    Two to the exponent of n, written as 2 n, is the number of ways the bits in a binary word of length n can be arranged. A word, interpreted as an unsigned integer, can represent values from 0 (000...000 2) to 2 n − 1 (111...111 2) inclusively. Corresponding signed integer values can be positive, negative and zero; see signed number ...

  8. Series expansion - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_expansion

    A Laurent series is a generalization of the Taylor series, allowing terms with negative exponents; it takes the form = and converges in an annulus. [6] In particular, a Laurent series can be used to examine the behavior of a complex function near a singularity by considering the series expansion on an annulus centered at the singularity.

  9. Matrix exponential - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_exponential

    Let us first calculate exp(J). We have = () The exponential of a 1×1 matrix is just the exponential of the one entry of the matrix, so exp(J 1 (4)) = [e 4]. The exponential of J 2 (16) can be calculated by the formula e (λI + N) = e λ e N mentioned above; this yields [23]

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