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When an exponent is a positive integer, that exponent indicates how many copies of the base are multiplied together. For example, 3 5 = 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 = 243. The base 3 appears 5 times in the multiplication, because the exponent is 5.
This is a problem if the exponent should remain secret, as with many public-key cryptosystems. A technique called "Montgomery's ladder" [2] addresses this concern. Given the binary expansion of a positive, non-zero integer n = (n k−1...n 0) 2 with n k−1 = 1, we can compute x n as follows:
This can be generalized to rational exponents of the form / by applying the power rule for integer exponents using the chain rule, as shown in the next step. Let y = x r = x p / q {\displaystyle y=x^{r}=x^{p/q}} , where p ∈ Z , q ∈ N + , {\displaystyle p\in \mathbb {Z} ,q\in \mathbb {N} ^{+},} so that r ∈ Q {\displaystyle r\in \mathbb {Q} } .
The displays of pocket calculators of the 1970s did not display an explicit symbol between significand and exponent; instead, one or more digits were left blank (e.g. 6.022 23, as seen in the HP-25), or a pair of smaller and slightly raised digits were reserved for the exponent (e.g. 6.022 23, as seen in the Commodore PR100).
Two to the exponent of n, written as 2 n, is the number of ways the bits in a binary word of length n can be arranged. A word, interpreted as an unsigned integer, can represent values from 0 (000...000 2) to 2 n − 1 (111...111 2) inclusively. Corresponding signed integer values can be positive, negative and zero; see signed number ...
A simple arithmetic calculator was first included with Windows 1.0. [5]In Windows 3.0, a scientific mode was added, which included exponents and roots, logarithms, factorial-based functions, trigonometry (supports radian, degree and gradians angles), base conversions (2, 8, 10, 16), logic operations, statistical functions such as single variable statistics and linear regression.
Inputs An integer b (base), integer e (exponent), and a positive integer m (modulus) Outputs The modular exponent c where c = b e mod m. Initialise c = 1 and loop variable e′ = 0; While e′ < e do Increment e′ by 1; Calculate c = (b ⋅ c) mod m; Output c; Note that at the end of every iteration through the loop, the equation c ≡ b e ...
To compare numbers in scientific notation, say 5×10 4 and 2×10 5, compare the exponents first, in this case 5 > 4, so 2×10 5 > 5×10 4. If the exponents are equal, the mantissa (or coefficient) should be compared, thus 5×10 4 > 2×10 4 because 5 > 2.