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In mathematics, Farkas' lemma is a solvability theorem for a finite system of linear inequalities. It was originally proven by the Hungarian mathematician Gyula Farkas. [1] Farkas' lemma is the key result underpinning the linear programming duality and has played a central role in the development of mathematical optimization (alternatively ...
In the unconstrained minimization problem, the Wolfe conditions are a set of inequalities for performing inexact line search, especially in quasi-Newton methods, first published by Philip Wolfe in 1969. [1][2] In these methods the idea is to find for some smooth . Each step often involves approximately solving the subproblem where is the ...
Adding 4 hours to 9 o'clock gives 1 o'clock, since 13 is congruent to 1 modulo 12. In mathematics, modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers "wrap around" when reaching a certain value, called the modulus. The modern approach to modular arithmetic was developed by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his book Disquisitiones ...
In number theory, the Legendre symbol is a multiplicative function with values 1, −1, 0 that is a quadratic character modulo of an odd prime number p: its value at a (nonzero) quadratic residue mod p is 1 and at a non-quadratic residue (non-residue) is −1. Its value at zero is 0. The Legendre symbol was introduced by Adrien-Marie Legendre ...
Norm (mathematics) In mathematics, a norm is a function from a real or complex vector space to the non-negative real numbers that behaves in certain ways like the distance from the origin: it commutes with scaling, obeys a form of the triangle inequality, and is zero only at the origin. In particular, the Euclidean distance in a Euclidean space ...
Because the modulus is prime, Lagrange's theorem applies: a polynomial of degree k can only have at most k roots. In particular, x 2 ≡ a (mod p ) has at most 2 solutions for each a . This immediately implies that besides 0 there are at least p − 1 / 2 distinct quadratic residues modulo p : each of the p − 1 possible values of x ...
Euler's totient function is a multiplicative function, meaning that if two numbers m and n are relatively prime, then φ(mn) = φ(m)φ(n). [4][5] This function gives the order of the multiplicative group of integers modulo n (the group of units of the ring ). [6] It is also used for defining the RSA encryption system.
Quadratic Reciprocity (Legendre's statement). If p or q are congruent to 1 modulo 4, then: is solvable if and only if is solvable. If p and q are congruent to 3 modulo 4, then: is solvable if and only if is not solvable. The last is immediately equivalent to the modern form stated in the introduction above.
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