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Departure of such a variable from its setpoint is one basis for error-controlled regulation using negative feedback for automatic control. [3] A setpoint can be any physical quantity or parameter that a control system seeks to regulate, such as temperature, pressure, flow rate, position, speed, or any other measurable attribute.
Simplified control circuit of human thermoregulation. [8]The core temperature of a human is regulated and stabilized primarily by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain linking the endocrine system to the nervous system, [9] and more specifically by the anterior hypothalamic nucleus and the adjacent preoptic area regions of the hypothalamus.
In psychophysics, sensory threshold is the weakest stimulus that an organism can sense.Unless otherwise indicated, it is usually defined as the weakest stimulus that can be detected half the time, for example, as indicated by a point on a probability curve. [1]
The thermodynamic limit is essentially a consequence of the central limit theorem of probability theory. The internal energy of a gas of N molecules is the sum of order N contributions, each of which is approximately independent, and so the central limit theorem predicts that the ratio of the size of the fluctuations to the mean is of order 1/N 1/2.
The measurement, known as entropymetry, [82] is done on a closed system with constant number of particles and constant volume , and it uses the definition of temperature [83] in terms of entropy, while limiting energy exchange to heat ::= (), = The resulting relation describes how entropy changes when a small amount of energy is introduced into ...
The ultralocal model describes the long wavelength high temperature behavior of the Ising model, since in this limit the fluctuation averages are independent from point to point. To find the critical point, lower the temperature. As the temperature goes down, the fluctuations in H go up because the fluctuations are more correlated. This means ...
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For the high-temperature limit and series expansions of the hyperbolic functions, the above is simplified as α S,vib = (ΔS vib /q) = (k B /q)Σ i (-Δω i /ω i). The Seebeck coefficient derived in the above Onsager formulation is the mixing component α S,mix , which dominates in most semiconductors.