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A volcanic hazard is the probability a volcanic eruption or related geophysical event will occur in a given geographic area and within a specified window of time. The risk that can be associated with a volcanic hazard depends on the proximity and vulnerability of an asset or a population of people near to where a volcanic event might occur.
Volcanic aerosols from huge volcanoes (VEI>=5) directly reduce global mean sea surface temperature (SST) by approximately 0.2-0.3 °C, [1] [3] milder than global total surface temperature drop, which is ~0.3 to 0.5 °C, [4] [5] [6] according to both global temperature records and model simulations. It usually takes several years to be back to ...
Their estimate was 11,000 deaths from direct volcanic effects and 49,000 by post-eruption famine and epidemic diseases. [20] Oppenheimer wrote that there were at least 71,000 deaths in total. [4] Reid has estimated that 100,000 people on Sumbawa, Bali, and other locations died from the direct and indirect effects of the eruption. [21]
Satellite view of a pumice raft from an undersea eruption in Tonga. Volcanic eruptions can have various impacts on maritime transportation. When a volcano erupts, large amounts of noxious gases, steam, rock, and ash are released into the atmosphere; fine ash can be transported thousands of miles from the volcano, while high concentrations of coarse particles fall out of the air near the ...
Since the initial eruption, the volcano has been releasing sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide — two gases that create acid rain when they interact with water and oxygen in the atmosphere.
The modeled climate effects of the Toba eruption hinges on the mass of sulfurous gases and aerosol microphysical processes. Modeling on an emission of 8.5 × 10 14 g of sulfur, which is 100 times the 1991 Pinatubo sulphur , volcanic winter has a maximum global mean cooling of 3.5 °C (6.3 °F) and returns gradually within the range of natural ...
Subglacial eruptions, those of ice-covered volcanoes, result in the interaction of magma with ice and snow, leading to meltwater formation, jökulhlaups, and lahars. Flooding associated with meltwater is a significant hazard in some volcanic areas, including Iceland, Alaska, and parts of the Andes.