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The Paternal Care hypothesis: Paternal care and investment will be designated to biological offspring, increasing the infant's chance of survival, and therefore increasing the male's own fitness. [ 33 ] [ 27 ] This hypothesis requires the on male to use recognition and behavioural cues to distinguish their own offspring from other infants. [ 29 ]
In birds, this parental care system is generally attributed to the ability of male birds to engage in most parental behaviours, with the exception of egg-laying. Due to their endothermy and small size at birth, there is a huge pressure for infant birds to grow up quickly to prevent energy loss.
Sexual selection is an evolutionary concept that has been used to explain why, in some species, male and female individuals behave differently in selecting mates. In 1930, Ronald Fisher wrote The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, [3] in which he introduced the modern concept of parental investment, introduced the sexy son hypothesis, and introduced Fisher's principle.
Vertebrate maternal behavior is a form of parental care that is specifically given to young animals by their mother in order to ensure the survival of the young. [1] Parental care is a form of altruism, which means that the behaviors involved often require a sacrifice that could put their own survival at risk. [1]
Alloparenting (or alloparental care) is a term for any form of parental care provided by an individual towards young that are not its own direct offspring. These are often called "non-descendant" young, [1] even though grandchildren can be among them. [2] Among humans, alloparenting is often performed by a child's grandparents and older siblings.
Bi-parental care may occur when there is a lower chance of survival of the offspring without male care. The evolution of this care has been associated with energetically expensive offspring. [16] Bi-parental care is exhibited in many avian species. [13] In these cases, the male has a greater chance to increase his own fitness by seeing that his ...
Extra-pair copulation in men has been explained as being partly due to parental investment. [7] Research has suggested that copulation poses more of a risk to future investment for women, as they have the potential of becoming pregnant, and consequently require a large parental investment of the gestation period, and then further rearing of the offspring. [7]
Allomothering, or allomaternal care, is parental care provided by group members other than the genetic mother. This is a common feature of many cooperative breeding species, including some mammal, bird and insect species. Allomothering in humans is universal, but the members who participate in allomothering vary from culture to culture.