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The Gauss–Newton method may also be used with the minimum number of measured ranges. Since it is iterative, the Gauss–Newton method requires an initial solution estimate. In 3-D Cartesian space, a fourth sphere eliminates the ambiguous solution that occurs with three ranges, provided its center is not co-planar with the first three.
Trilateration in three-dimensional geometry Intersection point of three pseudo-ranges. Trilateration is the use of distances (or "ranges") for determining the unknown position coordinates of a point of interest, often around Earth (geopositioning). [1] When more than three distances are involved, it may be called multilateration, for emphasis.
In mathematics, a rotation of axes in two dimensions is a mapping from an xy-Cartesian coordinate system to an x′y′-Cartesian coordinate system in which the origin is kept fixed and the x′ and y′ axes are obtained by rotating the x and y axes counterclockwise through an angle .
If a left-handed Cartesian coordinate system is used, with x directed to the right but y directed down, R(θ) is clockwise. Such non-standard orientations are rarely used in mathematics but are common in 2D computer graphics , which often have the origin in the top left corner and the y -axis down the screen or page.
An xy-Cartesian coordinate system rotated through an angle to an x′y′-Cartesian coordinate system In mathematics, a rotation of axes in two dimensions is a mapping from an xy-Cartesian coordinate system to an x′y′-Cartesian coordinate system in which the origin is kept fixed and the x′ and y′ axes are obtained by rotating the x and ...
In mathematics, bilinear interpolation is a method for interpolating functions of two variables (e.g., x and y) using repeated linear interpolation. It is usually applied to functions sampled on a 2D rectilinear grid , though it can be generalized to functions defined on the vertices of (a mesh of) arbitrary convex quadrilaterals .
Absorption of a pulsed spherical wave through stretched coordinate PML in 2D FDTD method. The white border indicates the simulation boundary. Specifically, for a PML designed to absorb waves propagating in the x direction, the following transformation is included in the wave equation.
This article uses the standard notation ISO 80000-2, which supersedes ISO 31-11, for spherical coordinates (other sources may reverse the definitions of θ and φ): . The polar angle is denoted by [,]: it is the angle between the z-axis and the radial vector connecting the origin to the point in question.