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A better estimate is provided by the total area of the cross-sections perpendicular to the muscle fibers (green lines in figure 1). This measure is known as the physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), and is commonly calculated and defined by the following formula, developed in 1975 by Alexander and Vernon: [4] [5] [6]
The test is carried out by generating an acoustic pulse from a speaker or spark source and this sound pulse is transmitted to the nose along a tube. This sound pulse is reflected back to a microphone and this reflection is generated according to the changes in the local acoustic impedance related to cross-sectional area of the nasal cavity.
By comparing MUAMA values against computed tomography, studies by Heymsfield et al. found that, at the maximum circumference of the triceps, the contribution of bone to the total cross-sectional area was 18% in men and 17% in women, which were 10 cm 2 and 6.5 cm 2 respectively. [1]
Recently, ultrasound studies have provided insight into the muscle architecture of this musculature and its long tendon [4] [5] Particularly, these studies have suggested that the tensor of vastus intermedius has a small cross-sectional area compared to other individual quadriceps muscles.
This may not necessarily be the cross-sectional area of the vehicle, depending on where the cross-section is taken. For example, for a sphere = (note this is not the surface area = ). For airfoils, the reference area is the nominal wing area. Since this tends to be large compared to the frontal area, the resulting drag coefficients tend to be ...
The cross-sectional area (′) of an object when viewed from a particular angle is the total area of the orthographic projection of the object from that angle. For example, a cylinder of height h and radius r has A ′ = π r 2 {\displaystyle A'=\pi r^{2}} when viewed along its central axis, and A ′ = 2 r h {\displaystyle A'=2rh} when viewed ...
When these bands were present, rotation of the shoulder caused a reduction in cross sectional area of the space. Normal resting postures of humeral adduction and internal rotation with scapular protraction may be speculated as a precedent for teres major contractures owing to the shortened position of this muscle in this position.
The formula to calculate average shear stress τ or force per unit area is: [1] =, where F is the force applied and A is the cross-sectional area.. The area involved corresponds to the material face parallel to the applied force vector, i.e., with surface normal vector perpendicular to the force.