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A betavoltaic device (betavoltaic cell or betavoltaic battery) is a type of nuclear battery that generates electric current from beta particles emitted from a radioactive source, using semiconductor junctions. A common source used is the hydrogen isotope tritium.
Betacel is considered to be the first commercially successful betavoltaic battery. [1] [2] [3] It was developed in the early 1970s by Larry C. Olsen at the American corporation McDonnell Douglas, using the radioisotope Promethium-147 as the beta-electron source coupled to silicon semiconductor cells.
The primary concern of cell division is the maintenance of the original cell's genome. Before division can occur, the genomic information that is stored in chromosomes must be replicated, and the duplicated genome must be cleanly divided between progeny cells. [9]
The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the sequential series of events that take place in a cell that causes it to divide into two daughter cells. These events include the growth of the cell, duplication of its DNA ( DNA replication ) and some of its organelles , and subsequently the partitioning of its cytoplasm, chromosomes and other ...
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The battery is a betavoltaic cell using carbon-14 (14 C) in the form of diamond-like carbon (DLC) as the beta radiation source, and additional normal-carbon DLC to make the necessary semiconductor junction and encapsulate the carbon-14. [2]
The non-thermal converters, such as betavoltaic cells, extract energy directly from the emitted radiation, before it is degraded into heat; they are easier to miniaturize and do not need a thermal gradient to operate, so they can be used in small machines. Atomic batteries usually have an efficiency of 0.1–5%.
The cell cycle is a series of complex, ordered, sequential events that control how a single cell divides into two cells, and involves several different phases. The phases include the G1 and G2 phases, DNA replication or S phase, and the actual process of cell division, mitosis or M phase. [1]