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Phytohaemagglutinin (PHA, or phytohemagglutinin) is a lectin found in plants, especially certain legumes. PHA actually consists of two closely related proteins, called leucoagglutinin (PHA-L) and PHA-E. These proteins cause blood cells to clump together. PHA-E cause erythrocytes (red blood cells) to clump.
Schematic representation of antibody. Anti-cardiolipin antibodies (ACA) are antibodies often directed against cardiolipin and found in several diseases, including syphilis, [1] antiphospholipid syndrome, livedoid vasculitis, vertebrobasilar insufficiency, Behçet's syndrome, [2] idiopathic spontaneous abortion, [3] and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). [4]
In a suspected antiphospholipid syndrome, lupus anticoagulant is generally tested in conjunction with anti-apolipoprotein antibodies and anti-cardiolipin antibodies, and diagnostic criteria require one clinical event (i.e. thrombosis or pregnancy complication) and two positive blood test results spaced at least three months apart that detect at ...
Fresh normal plasma has all the blood coagulation factors with normal levels. If the problem is a simple factor deficiency, mixing the patient plasma 1:1 with plasma that contains 100% of the normal factor level results in a level ≥50% in the mixture (say the patient has an activity of 0%; the average of 100% + 0% = 50%). [3]
Consequently, those viruses bound to antibodies are unable to link RBCs, meaning that a test’s positive result due to hemagglutination has been inhibited. On the contrary, if hemagglutination occurs, the test will result negative. A schematic diagram of the experimental setup to detect hemagglutination for blood typing.
Patients with drug-induced lupus erythematosus typically have positive tests for anti-histone antibodies but do not have indications for anti-dsDNA antibodies. Patients with idiopathic systemic lupus erythematosus have both types of autoantibodies present in their blood. Thus, this test can be useful in distinguishing these two illnesses. [9]
The direct Coombs test is used to detect antibodies or complement proteins attached to the surface of red blood cells. To perform the test, a blood sample is taken and the red blood cells are washed (removing the patient's plasma and unbound antibodies from the red blood cells) and then incubated with anti-human globulin ("Coombs reagent").
In blood grouping, the patient's serum is tested against RBCs of known blood groups and also the patient's RBCs are tested against known serum types. In this way the patient's blood group is confirmed from both RBCs and serum. A direct Coombs test is also done on the patient's blood sample in case there are any confounding antibodies.