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The effect(s) of such misclassification can vary from an overestimation to an underestimation of the true value. [4] Statisticians have developed methods to adjust for this type of bias, which may assist somewhat in compensating for this problem when known and when it is quantifiable. [5]
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Recall bias is of particular concern in retrospective studies that use a case-control design to investigate the etiology of a disease or psychiatric condition. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] For example, in studies of risk factors for breast cancer , women who have had the disease may search their memories more thoroughly than members of the unaffected ...
Information bias (epidemiology), bias arising in a clinical study because of misclassification of the level of exposure to the agent or factor being assessed and/or misclassification of the disease or other outcome itself. Information bias (psychology), a type of cognitive bias, involving e.g. distorted evaluation of information.
Epidemiological (and other observational) studies typically highlight associations between exposures and outcomes, rather than causation. While some consider this a limitation of observational research, epidemiological models of causation (e.g. Bradford Hill criteria) [7] contend that an entire body of evidence is needed before determining if an association is truly causal. [8]
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Self-selection bias or a volunteer bias in studies offer further threats to the validity of a study as these participants may have intrinsically different characteristics from the target population of the study. [19] Studies have shown that volunteers tend to come from a higher social standing than from a lower socio-economic background. [20]
Notable bias (spin) has been reported in the interpretation of results of randomized control trials, although these study designs rank top in the level-of-evidence hierarchy. [36] [37] [38] Contrastingly, a study found low prevalence of bias in the conclusions of non-randomized control trials published in high-ranking orthopedic publications. [39]