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Surface rupture caused by normal faulting along the Lost River Fault, during the 1983 Borah Peak earthquake. In seismology, surface rupture (or ground rupture, or ground displacement) is the visible offset of the ground surface when an earthquake rupture along a fault affects the Earth's surface.
Types of faulting. Anderson's theory of faulting, devised by Ernest Masson Anderson in 1905, is a way of classifying geological faults by use of principal stress. [1] [2] A fault is a fracture in the surface of the Earth that occurs when rocks break under extreme stress. [3] Movement of rock along the fracture occurs in faults.
Faults may also displace slowly, by aseismic creep. [2] A fault plane is the plane that represents the fracture surface of a fault. A fault trace or fault line is a place where the fault can be seen or mapped on the surface.
Both surface deformation and faulting and shaking-related geological effects (e.g., soil liquefaction, landslides) not only leave permanent imprints in the environment, but also dramatically affect human structures. Moreover, underwater fault ruptures and seismically triggered landslides can generate tsunami waves.
A tectonic earthquake begins by an initial rupture at a point on the fault surface, a process known as nucleation. The scale of the nucleation zone is uncertain, with some evidence, such as the rupture dimensions of the smallest earthquakes, suggesting that it is smaller than 100 m while other evidence, such as a slow component revealed by low-frequency spectra of some earthquakes, suggest ...
Quaternary faults are those active faults that have been recognized at the surface and which have evidence of movement during the Quaternary Period. [ 3 ] Related geological disciplines for active-fault studies include geomorphology , seismology , reflection seismology , plate tectonics , geodetics and remote sensing , risk analysis , and others.
Low angle normal faulting is not explained by [[Anderson's theory of faulting|Andersonian fault mechanics]]. [8] However, slip on low angle normal faults could be facilitated by fluid pressure, as well as by weakness of minerals in wall rocks. Detachment faults may also initiate on reactivated thrust fault surfaces. [7]
A science fair or engineering fair is an event hosted by a school that offers students the opportunity to experience the practices of science and engineering for themselves. In the United States, the Next Generation Science Standards makes experiencing the practices of science and engineering one of the three pillars of science education.