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The mass of a proton is about 80–100 times greater than the sum of the rest masses of its three valence quarks, while the gluons have zero rest mass. The extra energy of the quarks and gluons in a proton, as compared to the rest energy of the quarks alone in the QCD vacuum , accounts for almost 99% of the proton's mass.
The factor 4 π is ubiquitous in theoretical physics because in three-dimensional space, the surface area of a sphere of radius r is 4 π r 2. This, along with the concept of flux , are the basis for the inverse-square law , Gauss's law , and the divergence operator applied to flux density .
(near r.t.) 2.70 g/cm 3: 14 Si silicon; use: 2.33 g/cm 3: WEL (near r.t.) 2330 kg/m 3: LNG (at r.t.) 2.33 g/cm 3: CRC (near r.t.) 2.3290 g/cm 3: 15 P phosphorus (white) use: 1.823 g/cm 3: WEL (near r.t.) 1823 kg/m 3: LNG (at 25 °C) 1.823 g/cm 3: CRC (near r.t.) 1.823 g/cm 3: 15 P phosphorus (red) use: 2.34 g/cm 3: LNG (at r.t.) 2.34 g/cm 3 ...
For example, the atomic mass constant is exactly known when expressed using the dalton (its value is exactly 1 Da), but the kilogram is not exactly known when using these units, the opposite of when expressing the same quantities using the kilogram.
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The tonne (t) is an SI-compatible unit of mass equal to a megagram (Mg), or 10 3 kg. The unit is in common use for masses above about 10 3 kg and is often used with SI prefixes. For example, a gigagram ( Gg ) or 10 9 g is 10 3 tonnes, commonly called a kilotonne .
However, one gram of hydrogen reacts with 8 grams of oxygen to give water or with 35.5 grams of chlorine to give hydrogen chloride: hence 8 grams of oxygen and 35.5 grams of chlorine can be taken to be equivalent to one gram of hydrogen for the measurement of equivalent weights. This system can be extended further through different acids and bases.
4.2×10 9 J: Energy released by explosion of 1 ton of TNT. 4.5×10 9 J: Average annual energy usage of a standard refrigerator [142] [143] 6.1×10 9 J: ≈ 1 bboe (barrel of oil equivalent) [144] 10 10 1.9×10 10 J: Kinetic energy of an Airbus A380 at cruising speed (560 tonnes at 511 knots or 263 m/s) 4.2×10 10 J: ≈ 1 toe (ton of oil ...
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