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The Pantheon in Rome is an example of Roman concrete construction. Caesarea harbour: an example of underwater Roman concrete technology on a large scale. Roman concrete, also called opus caementicium, was used in construction in ancient Rome. Like its modern equivalent, Roman concrete was based on a hydraulic-setting cement added to an aggregate.
If there is more than 15% clay it may take more than 10% cement to stabilize the soil, which adds to the cost. [20] If earth contains little clay and holds 10% or more cement, it is in effect concrete. Cement is not particularly environmentally friendly, since the manufacturing process generates large amounts of carbon dioxide. [22]
Starting around 200 BCE, the architects of the Roman Empire were building impressive concrete structures that have stood the test of time — from the soaring dome of the Pantheon to the sturdy ...
Calcium is a binding agent in Roman concrete, which makes it remarkably strong. Figuring out where it came from was the key to solving this architectural mystery.
Roman concrete was superior to other concrete recipes (for example, those consisting of only sand and lime) [1] used by other cultures. Besides volcanic ash for making regular Roman concrete, brick dust can also be used. Besides regular Roman concrete, the Romans also invented hydraulic concrete, which they made from volcanic ash and clay.
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Of the various ingredients used to produce a given quantity of concrete, the cement is the most energetically expensive. Even complex and efficient kilns require 3.3 to 3.6 gigajoules of energy to produce a ton of clinker and then grind it into cement. Many kilns can be fueled with difficult-to-dispose-of wastes, the most common being used tires.
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