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Stephen Edelston Toulmin (/ ˈ t uː l m ɪ n /; 25 March 1922 – 4 December 2009) was a British philosopher, author, and educator.Influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, Toulmin devoted his works to the analysis of moral reasoning.
Toulmin believed that reasoning is less an activity of inference, involving the discovering of new ideas, and more a process of testing and sifting already existing ideas—an act achievable through the process of justification. Toulmin believed that for a good argument to succeed, it needs to provide good justification for a claim.
A Toulmin argument diagram, redrawn from his 1959 Uses of Argument A generalised Toulmin diagram. Stephen Toulmin, in his groundbreaking and influential 1958 book The Uses of Argument, [22] identified several elements to an argument which have been generalized. The Toulmin diagram is widely used in educational critical teaching.
For example, when predicting how a person will react to a situation, inductive reasoning can be employed based on how the person reacted previously in similar circumstances. It plays an equally central role in the sciences , which often start with many particular observations and then apply the process of generalization to arrive at a universal ...
"A statement of the writer's position, including the contexts in which it is valid." [86] "A statement of how the opponent's position would benefit if he were to adopt elements of the writer's position. If the writer can show that the positions complement each other, that each supplies what the other lacks, so much the better." [86]
Each essay is assigned a score from 0–6, 6 being high. The student's thesis may earn one point, their argument and evidence may earn up to four points, and an extra point may be earned for holistic complexity and sophistication of the argument or of the essay as a whole. The FRQ scoring was changed in 2019 from a 9 point holistic scale.
McGee encourages the study of ideographs (such as “liberty” and “freedom”) to help identify the ideological position of a society. He argues such terms are used in discourse as a means of justifying problematic issues within a society. The meaning of an ideograph is defined by a society and its culture and can change over time ...
Somewhere along the way, Toulmin's beliefs changed again from Baptist to Unitarian. In January 1804, at age sixty-four, Toulmin moved to Birmingham, England and accepted a position as one of the pastors of the Birmingham Unitarian congregation, formerly presided over by the co-discover of oxygen, Joseph Priestley. Between 1809 and 1811, Toulmin ...