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Limited amounts of eicosapentaenoic and docosapentaenoic acids are possible products of α-linolenic acid metabolism in young women [9] and men. [8] DHA in breast milk is important for the developing infant. [10] Rates of DHA production in women are 15% higher than in men. [11] DHA is a major fatty acid in brain phospholipids and the retina.
In breastfeeding women, low milk supply, also known as lactation insufficiency, insufficient milk syndrome, agalactia, agalactorrhea, hypogalactia or hypogalactorrhea, is the production of breast milk in daily volumes that do not fully meet the nutritional needs of her infant.
Some women may need to take iron, vitamin C, or calcium supplements during pregnancy, but only on the advice of a doctor. In the 1999–2000 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey , 52% of adults in the United States reported taking at least one dietary supplement in the last month and 35% reported regular use of multivitamin ...
Iodine levels are frequently too low in pregnant women, and iodine is necessary for normal thyroid function and mental development of the fetus, even cretinism. Pregnant women should take prenatal vitamins containing iodine. [10] Vitamin D levels vary with exposure to sunlight. While it was assumed that supplementation was necessary only in ...
High levels of prolactin during pregnancy and breastfeeding also increase insulin resistance, increase growth factor levels (IGF-1) and modify lipid metabolism in preparation for breastfeeding. During lactation, prolactin is the main factor maintaining tight junctions of the ductal epithelium and regulating milk production through osmotic balance.
According to the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Black women have the lowest breastfeeding initiation rate of all racial groups at just under 70 percent, compared to 85 percent of white ...
Using cups to feed expressed breast milk and other supplements results in improved breastfeeding outcomes in terms of both duration and extent, compared with traditional bottle and tube feeding. [5] [6] For mothers unable to produce an adequate supply of breast milk, the use of pasteurized donor human breast milk is a viable option.
The authors advocate that women be provided with education on breastfeeding's benefits as well as problem-solving skills, [287] however there is no conclusive evidence that breastfeeding education alone improves initiation of breastfeeding or the proportion of women breastfeeding either exclusively or partially at 3 months and 6 months. [240]