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Experimental research has the Duhem problem and other problems, such as the problem of induction, [I] but, according to Popper, statistical tests, which are only possible when a theory is falsifiable, can still be useful within a critical discussion.
Testability is a primary aspect of science [1] and the scientific method.There are two components to testability: Falsifiability or defeasibility, which means that counterexamples to the hypothesis are logically possible.
In research designed to identify the "quack factor" in modern mental health practice, Norcross et al. (2006) [467] list NLP as possibly or probably discredited, and in papers reviewing discredited interventions for substance and alcohol abuse, Norcross et al. (2008) [468] list NLP in the "top ten" most discredited, and Glasner-Edwards and ...
Universality: No person should be able to more easily obtain the information of a test than another person. Social class, religion, ethnicity, or any other personal factors should not be factors in someone's ability to receive or perform a type of science.
[88] (opposite of appeal to tradition) Appeal to poverty (argumentum ad Lazarum) – supporting a conclusion because the arguer is poor (or refuting because the arguer is wealthy). (Opposite of appeal to wealth.) [89] Appeal to tradition (argumentum ad antiquitatem) – a conclusion supported solely because it has long been held to be true. [90]
In addition to the main result, Ioannidis lists six corollaries for factors that can influence the reliability of published research. Research findings in a scientific field are less likely to be true, the smaller the studies conducted. the smaller the effect sizes. the greater the number and the lesser the selection of tested relationships.
Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions. [2] Thus, it can be a mark of good science if a discipline has a growing list of superseded theories, and conversely, a lack of superseded theories can indicate problems in following the use of the scientific method.
A Lancet review on Handling of Scientific Misconduct in Scandinavian countries gave examples of policy definitions. In Denmark, scientific misconduct is defined as "intention[al] negligence leading to fabrication of the scientific message or a false credit or emphasis given to a scientist", and in Sweden as "intention[al] distortion of the ...