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Relationship of the atmosphere and ionosphere. The ionosphere (/ aɪ ˈ ɒ n ə ˌ s f ɪər /) [1] [2] is the ionized part of the upper atmosphere of Earth, from about 48 km (30 mi) to 965 km (600 mi) above sea level, [3] a region that includes the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and exosphere. The ionosphere is ionized by solar ...
The riometer was developed in the mid-1950s by scientists at the University of Alaska who were researching the radio propagation effects of aurorae. [1] At times aurorae resulted in complete failure of long-distance radio communication to planes in the Arctic - a matter of considerable concern to the US Air Force at a time of tension with the Soviet Union [citation needed].
The tiny ionospheric photometer (TIP) is a small space-based photometer that observes the Earth's ionosphere [1] [2] at 135.6 nm. The TIP instruments were designed and built by the US Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) and are a part of the COSMIC program.
From the spectrum of color coming from the water, the concentration of optically active components of the upper layer of the water body can be estimated via specific algorithms. [1] Water quality monitoring by remote sensing and close-range instruments has obtained considerable attention since the founding of EU Water Framework Directive. [1]
Balloons cannot reach it because the air is too thin, but satellites cannot orbit there because the air is too thick. Hence, most experiments on the ionosphere give only small pieces of information. HAARP approaches the study of the ionosphere by following in the footsteps of an ionospheric heater called EISCAT near Tromsø, Norway. There ...
International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) is a common permanent scientific project of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) and the International Union of Radio Science (URSI) started 1968/69. It is the international standard empirical model for the terrestrial ionosphere since 1999.
TEC plot for the continental USA, made on 2013-11-24. Total electron content (TEC) is an important descriptive quantity for the ionosphere of the Earth. TEC is the total number of electrons integrated between two points, along a tube of one meter squared cross section, i.e., the electron columnar number density.
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