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An evolutionary game with no ESS is "rock-scissors-paper", as found in species such as the side-blotched lizard (Uta stansburiana). An unbeatable strategy: the ESS is only an uninvadeable strategy. Female funnel web spiders (Agelenopsis aperta) contest with one another for the possession of their desert spider webs using the assessor strategy.
Hamilton also went on to model predation in two-dimensions, using a lion as an example. Movements that Hamilton proposed would lower an individual's domain of danger were largely based on the theory of marginal predation. This theory states that predators attack the closest prey, who are typically on the outside of an aggregation. [1]
The aim of Huffaker’s 1958 experiment was to “shed light upon the fundamental nature of predator–prey interaction” [2] and to “establish an ecosystem in which a predatory and a prey species could continue living together so that the phenomena associated with their interactions could be studied in detail”. [3]
EcoSim is an individual-based predator-prey ecosystem simulation in which agents can evolve. It has been designed to investigate several broad ecological questions, as well as long-term evolutionary patterns and processes such as speciation and macroevolution.
The Lotka–Volterra predator-prey model makes a number of assumptions about the environment and biology of the predator and prey populations: [5] The prey population finds ample food at all times. The food supply of the predator population depends entirely on the size of the prey population.
Experiments on blue jays suggest they form a search image for certain prey.. Visual predators may form what is termed a search image of certain prey.. Predators need not locate their host directly: Kestrels, for instance, are able to detect the faeces and urine of their prey (which reflect ultraviolet), allowing them to identify areas where there are large numbers of voles, for example.
Predators receive a reproductive payoff, e, for consuming prey, and die at rate u. Making predation pressure a function of the ratio of prey to predators contrasts with the prey-dependent Lotka–Volterra equations, where the per capita effect of predators on the prey population is simply a function of the magnitude of the prey population g(N).
The generalized Lotka–Volterra equations are a set of equations which are more general than either the competitive or predator–prey examples of Lotka–Volterra types. [1] [2] They can be used to model direct competition and trophic relationships between an arbitrary number of species. Their dynamics can be analysed analytically to some extent.