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The speed cell firing in response to the movement of the animal provides instantaneous running speed to the grid cell. The grid cell in turn uses this information along with the head direction in order to calculate the location of the animal in the cognitive map. [1]
Limitations of animal running speed provides an overview of how various factors determine the maximum running speed. Some terrestrial animals are built for achieving extremely high speeds, such as the cheetah , pronghorn , race horse and greyhound , while humans can train to achieve high sprint speeds.
The ostrich is the fastest bird on land, as well as the fastest running animal on two legs. [51] [52] The highest reliably measured running speed for ostriches is 61 km/h (38 mph), obtained by speedometer reading when a car was chasing an ostrich in a straight line chase to force it to move as fast as it could. [53]
Many animals alter walking kinematics as they modulate walking speed. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] An interlimb kinematic parameter that is commonly speed dependent is gait, the stepping pattern across legs. While some animals alternate between distinct gaits as a function of speed, [ 19 ] others move along a continuum of gaits. [ 20 ]
In animal models, running has been shown to increase the number of newly created neurons within the brain. [67] This finding could have significant implications in aging as well as learning and memory. A recent study published in Cell Metabolism has also linked running with improved memory and learning skills. [68]
Some eukaryotic cells, such as the protist Euglena and animal sperm, possess a convergent, evolutionarily distinct [32] flagellum-like structure known as a cilium or undulipodium. Unlike bacterial flagella however, these structures do not rotate at the base; rather, they bend in such a way that the tip whips in a circle. [33]: 1105
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In walking, and for many animals running, the motion of legs on either side of the body alternates, i.e. is out of phase. Other animals, such as a horse when galloping, or an inchworm, alternate between their front and back legs. In saltation (hopping) all legs move together, instead of alternating. As a main means of locomotion, this is ...