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Frost damage of early-age concrete is particularly harmful for the concrete mechanical resistance because the ice volume expansion causes micro-cracks in the concrete structures, and as a consequence it lowers the compressive strength of concrete. [4]
The use of Zemdrain CPF on the resistance to chloride penetration of concretes exposed to salt spray condition in hot climates; Technical Report No. 1303/92/6335, Taywood Engineering Ltd, R&D Division, September, 1992,(unpublished). Price, W.F. The effect of Zemdrain Controlled Permeability Formwork on the frost resistance of concrete.
"Freeze-Thaw resistance". Polymers in Concrete. CRC Press. pp. 40–42. ISBN 9780849348150. J. Marchand; Michel Pigeon; M. Setzer (1997). Freeze–thaw Durability of Concrete. Proceedings of the International Workshop in the Resistance of Concrete to Scaling Due to Freezing in the Presence of De-icing Salts, Sainte-Foy, Québec, Canada.
Pervious concrete and asphalt designed to reduce frost heave and spalling damage has been used successfully in Norway and New Hampshire. [19] Furthermore, experience suggests that preventive measures with rapid drainage below porous surfaces be taken in order to increase the rate of snow melt above ground.
For normal weight concrete (defined as concrete with a w c of 150 lb/ft 3 and subtracting 5 lb/ft 3 for steel) E c is permitted to be taken as ′. The publication used by structural bridge engineers is the AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design Manual, or "LRFD."
Concrete, like most consolidated hard rocks, is a material very resistant to compression but which cannot withstand tension, especially internal tensions. Its tensile strength is about 10 times lower than its compressive strength.
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A fairly well-defined reaction front can often be observed in thin sections; ahead of the front the concrete is normal, or near normal. Behind the reaction front, the composition and the microstructure of concrete are modified. These changes may vary in type or severity but commonly include: Extensive cracking; Expansion
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