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When an exponent is a positive integer, that exponent indicates how many copies of the base are multiplied together. For example, 3 5 = 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 = 243. The base 3 appears 5 times in the multiplication, because the exponent is 5. Here, 243 is the 5th power of 3, or 3 raised to the 5th power.
Exponentiation by squaring can be viewed as a suboptimal addition-chain exponentiation algorithm: it computes the exponent by an addition chain consisting of repeated exponent doublings (squarings) and/or incrementing exponents by one (multiplying by x) only.
Calculators generally perform operations with the same precedence from left to right, [1] but some programming languages and calculators adopt different conventions. For example, multiplication is granted a higher precedence than addition, and it has been this way since the introduction of modern algebraic notation.
The first step away from slide rules was the introduction of relatively inexpensive electronic desktop scientific calculators. These included the Wang Laboratories LOCI-2, [31] [32] introduced in 1965, which used logarithms for multiplication and division; and the Hewlett-Packard HP 9100A, introduced in 1968. [33]
A simple arithmetic calculator was first included with Windows 1.0. [5]In Windows 3.0, a scientific mode was added, which included exponents and roots, logarithms, factorial-based functions, trigonometry (supports radian, degree and gradians angles), base conversions (2, 8, 10, 16), logic operations, statistical functions such as single variable statistics and linear regression.
When multiplication is repeated, the resulting operation is known as exponentiation. For instance, the product of three factors of two (2×2×2) is "two raised to the third power", and is denoted by 2 3, a two with a superscript three. In this example, the number two is the base, and three is the exponent. [26]
The most direct method of calculating a modular exponent is to calculate b e directly, then to take this number modulo m. Consider trying to compute c, given b = 4, e = 13, and m = 497: c ≡ 4 13 (mod 497) One could use a calculator to compute 4 13; this comes out to 67,108,864.
Visualization of powers of two from 1 to 1024 (2 0 to 2 10) as base-2 Dienes blocks. A power of two is a number of the form 2 n where n is an integer, that is, the result of exponentiation with number two as the base and integer n as the exponent.