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Some others are in mainstream usage and independent of any Russian context. While both English and Russian are distantly related members of Indo-European and therefore share a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-European, cognate pairs such as mother – мать (mat ') will be excluded from the list.
In comparative linguistics, Meillet's principle, also known as the three-witness principle or three-language principle, states that apparent cognates must be attested in at least three different, non-contiguous daughter languages in order to be used in linguistic reconstruction.
The following are lists of words in the English language that are known as "loanwords" or "borrowings," which are derived from other languages. For Old English-derived words, see List of English words of Old English origin. English words of African origin; List of English words of Afrikaans origin. List of South African English regionalisms
A Middle Irish cognate is given when the Old Irish form is unknown, and Gaulish, Cornish and/or Breton (modern) cognates may occasionally be given in place of or in addition to Welsh. For the Baltic languages, Lithuanian (modern) and Old Prussian cognates are given when possible. (Both Lithuanian and Old Prussian are included because Lithuanian ...
Cognates also do not need to look or sound similar: English father, French père, and Armenian հայր (hayr) all descend directly from Proto-Indo-European *ph₂tḗr. An extreme case is Armenian երկու (erku) and English two, which descend from Proto-Indo-European *dwóh₁; the sound change *dw > erk in Armenian is regular.
The set of possible cognate pairings was then analyzed as a whole for predictable regularities. [13] Words were separated into groupings based on how many language families appeared to be cognate for the word. Among the 188 words, cognate groups ranged from 1 (no cognates) to 7 (all languages cognate) with a mean of 2.3 ± 1.1.
A Swadesh list (/ ˈ s w ɑː d ɛ ʃ /) is a compilation of tentatively universal concepts for the purposes of lexicostatistics.That is, a Swadesh list is a list of forms and concepts which all languages, without exception, have terms for, such as star, hand, water, kill, sleep, and so forth.
The English spelling usually removes the ʻokina and macron diacritics. [19] Most English affixes, such as un-, -ing, and -ly, were used in Old English. However, a few English affixes are borrowed. For example, the verbal suffix -ize (American English) or ise (British English) comes from Greek -ιζειν (-izein) through Latin -izare.