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The bypass transition scenario was first observed experimentally by P. S. Klebanoff, during his experiments in elevated free-stream turbulence flow. Klebanoff identified an important aspect of the bypass transition. In an experiment using hot wires, he studied flow over a flat plate that was subjected to a 0.3% free-stream turbulence level.
Schematic illustration of production, energy cascade and dissipation in the energy spectrum of turbulence. The largest motions, or eddies, of turbulence contain most of the kinetic energy, whereas the smallest eddies are responsible for the viscous dissipation of turbulence kinetic energy. Kolmogorov hypothesized that when these scales are well ...
In fluid mechanics, the Rayleigh number (Ra, after Lord Rayleigh [1]) for a fluid is a dimensionless number associated with buoyancy-driven flow, also known as free (or natural) convection. [2] [3] [4] It characterises the fluid's flow regime: [5] a value in a certain lower range denotes laminar flow; a value in a higher range, turbulent flow.
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A variety of models exist for gusts [3] but only two, the Dryden and von Kármán models, are generally used for continuous gusts in flight dynamics applications. [2] [4] Both of these models define gusts in terms of power spectral densities for the linear and angular velocity components parameterized by turbulence length scales and intensities.
A direct numerical simulation (DNS) [1] [2] is a simulation in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in which the Navier–Stokes equations are numerically solved without any turbulence model. This means that the whole range of spatial and temporal scales of the turbulence must be resolved.
The model attempts to predict turbulence by two partial differential equations for two variables, k and ω, with the first variable being the turbulence kinetic energy (k) while the second (ω) is the specific rate of dissipation (of the turbulence kinetic energy k into internal thermal energy).
Within the field of fluid dynamics, Homogeneous isotropic turbulence is an idealized version of the realistic turbulence, but amenable to analytical studies. The concept of isotropic turbulence was first introduced by G.I. Taylor in 1935. [1] The meaning of the turbulence is given below, [2] [3] [4]