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Regeneration in biology is the process of renewal, restoration, and tissue growth that makes genomes, cells, organisms, and ecosystems resilient to natural fluctuations or events that cause disturbance or damage. [1] Every species is capable of regeneration, from bacteria to humans.
Plant-eating insects such as scale insects, aphids, and caterpillars closely resemble ectoparasites, attacking much larger plants; they serve as vectors of bacteria, fungi and viruses which cause plant diseases. As female scale insects cannot move, they are obligate parasites, permanently attached to their hosts. [16]
A pathogenic cause for a known medical disease may only be discovered many years later, as was the case with Helicobacter pylori and peptic ulcer disease. [224] Bacterial diseases are also important in agriculture, and bacteria cause leaf spot, fire blight and wilts in plants, as well as Johne's disease, mastitis, salmonella and anthrax in farm ...
Plants can play host to a wide range of pathogen types, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and even other plants. [35] Notable plant viruses include the papaya ringspot virus , which has caused millions of dollars of damage to farmers in Hawaii and Southeast Asia, [ 36 ] and the tobacco mosaic virus which caused scientist Martinus ...
Toxins: These can be non-host-specific, which damage all plants, or host-specific, which cause damage only on a host plant. Effector proteins: These can be secreted by pathogens such as bacteria, fungi, and oomycetes [6] [7] into the extracellular environment or directly into the host cell, often via the Type three secretion system. Some ...
Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some micro-animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore not considered to be microorganisms, although a subfield of microbiology is virology , the study of viruses.
Hypersensitive response (HR) is a mechanism used by plants to prevent the spread of infection by microbial pathogens.HR is characterized by the rapid death of cells in the local region surrounding an infection and it serves to restrict the growth and spread of pathogens to other parts of the plant.
Although the exact pathogenic species vary with the infected species, bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes, and insects can all cause plant disease. As with animals, plants attacked by insects or other pathogens use a set of complex metabolic responses that lead to the formation of defensive chemical compounds that fight infection or make the ...