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An upper motor neuron lesion (also known as pyramidal insufficiency) Is an injury or abnormality that occurs in the neural pathway above the anterior horn cell of the spinal cord or motor nuclei of the cranial nerves.
Pyramidal signs can be a result from different types of damage to the brain or spinal cord, such as strokes, infections, tumors, hemorrhagic events, multiple sclerosis, or trauma. [4] Parkinsonian-Pyramidal syndrome (PPS) is a combination of both pyramidal and parkinsonian signs that manifest in various neurodegenerative diseases. [5]
Medications are used to reverse the symptoms of extrapyramidal side effects caused by antipsychotics or other drugs, by either directly or indirectly increasing dopaminergic neurotransmission. The treatment varies by the type of the EPS, but may involve anticholinergic agents such as procyclidine, benztropine, diphenhydramine, and trihexyphenidyl.
Vitamin B 12 deficiency, also known as cobalamin deficiency, is the medical condition in which the blood and tissue have a lower than normal level of vitamin B 12. [5] Symptoms can vary from none to severe. [1] Mild deficiency may have few or absent symptoms. [1]
Vertebrobasilar insufficiency (VBI) describes a temporary set of symptoms due to decreased blood flow in the posterior circulation of the brain. The posterior circulation supplies the medulla , pons , midbrain , cerebellum and (in 70-80% of people) supplies the posterior cerebellar artery to the thalamus and occipital cortex . [ 1 ]
[14] [30] MS is also more common in women, while venous diseases are more common in men. Venous pathology is commonly associated with hypertension, infarcts, edema and transient ischemia, and occurs more often with age, however these conditions are hardly ever seen in MS and the disease seldom appears after age 50. Finally, an organ-specific ...
The disease can also be caused by inhalation of nitrous oxide, which inactivates vitamin B12. [ 11 ] Vitamin E deficiency , which is associated with malabsorption disorders such as cystic fibrosis and Bassen-Kornzweig syndrome , [ 12 ] can cause a similar presentation due to the degeneration of the dorsal columns .
Proper diagnosis of these neurodegenerative disorders is important as individual treatments vary depending on the condition. The nuclear medicine SPECT procedure using 123 I ‑ iodobenzamide (IBZM), is an effective tool in the establishment of the differential diagnosis between patients with PD and Parkinson-plus syndromes.