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In some object-oriented languages like C++ and Objective-C, it is sometimes necessary to forward-declare classes. This is done in situations when it is necessary to know that the name of the class is a type, but where it is unnecessary to know the structure. In C++, classes and structs can be forward-declared like this:
Inner classes became a feature of the Java programming language starting with version 1.1. Nested classes are also a feature of the D programming language, Visual Basic .NET, Ruby, C++ and C#. In Python, it is possible to nest a class within another class, method or function. C++ has nested classes that are like Java's static member classes ...
In this example, class C can forward to any class that implements an interface I. Class C has a method to switch to another forwarder. Including the implements clauses improves type safety, because each class must implement the methods in the interface. The main tradeoff is more code.
Access modifiers (or access specifiers) are keywords in object-oriented languages that set the accessibility of classes, methods, and other members. Access modifiers are a specific part of programming language syntax used to facilitate the encapsulation of components. [1] In C++, there are only three access modifiers.
Stroustrup describes C++ as "a light-weight abstraction programming language [designed] for building and using efficient and elegant abstractions"; [15] and "offering both hardware access and abstraction is the basis of C++. Doing it efficiently is what distinguishes it from other languages." [68] C++ inherits most of C's syntax.
C++ doesn't have: PROC – first class nested functions (emulation due to local definitions of class types, which could be functors; also, C++11 has lambda functions), OP and PRIO – definable operator symbols and priorities, garbage collection (could be emulated with help of smart pointers), use before define,
There are a few syntactic constructs that are valid in both C and C++ but produce different results in the two languages. Character literals such as 'a' are of type int in C and of type char in C++, which means that sizeof 'a' will generally give different results in the two languages: in C++, it will be 1, while in C it will be sizeof(int).
A class in C++ is a user-defined type or data structure declared with any of the keywords class, struct or union (the first two are collectively referred to as non-union classes) that has data and functions (also called member variables and member functions) as its members whose access is governed by the three access specifiers private, protected or public.