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Producer surplus, or producers' surplus, is the amount that producers benefit by selling at a market price that is higher than the least that they would be willing to sell for; this is roughly equal to profit (since producers are not normally willing to sell at a loss and are normally indifferent to selling at a break-even price).
This equation is a special form of the more general weakly singular Volterra integral equation of the first kind, called Abel's integral equation: [7] = Strongly singular: An integral equation is called strongly singular if the integral is defined by a special regularisation, for example, by the Cauchy principal value.
The Ramsey problem, or Ramsey pricing, or Ramsey–Boiteux pricing, is a second-best policy problem concerning what prices a public monopoly should charge for the various products it sells in order to maximize social welfare (the sum of producer and consumer surplus) while earning enough revenue to cover its fixed costs.
A Sommerfeld expansion is an approximation method developed by Arnold Sommerfeld for a certain class of integrals which are common in condensed matter and statistical physics. Physically, the integrals represent statistical averages using the Fermi–Dirac distribution.
In 1911, Lalescu wrote the first book ever on integral equations. Volterra integral equations find application in demography as Lotka's integral equation, [2] the study of viscoelastic materials, in actuarial science through the renewal equation, [3] and in fluid mechanics to describe the flow behavior near finite-sized boundaries. [4] [5]
A function F(x) is an h-antiderivative of f(x) if D h F(x) = f(x).The h-integral is denoted by ().If a and b differ by an integer multiple of h then the definite integral () is given by a Riemann sum of f(x) on the interval [a, b], partitioned into sub-intervals of equal width h.
The OZ equation has practical importance as a foundation for approximations for computing the pair correlation function of molecules or ions in liquids, or of colloidal particles. The pair correlation function is related via Fourier transform to the static structure factor , which can be determined experimentally using X-ray diffraction or ...
Hamilton's principle uses = , the integral of the Lagrangian over time, varied between two fixed end times , and endpoints , . By contrast, Maupertuis's principle uses the abbreviated action integral over the generalized coordinates , varied along all constant energy paths ending at q 1 {\displaystyle \mathbf {q} _{1}} and q 2 {\displaystyle ...