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On the other hand, the theory makes natural laws invariant—examples are the constancy of the speed of light, or the covariance of Maxwell's equations. Consequently, Felix Klein (1910) called it the "invariant theory of the Lorentz group" instead of relativity theory, and Einstein (who reportedly used expressions like "absolute theory ...
In such a theory, its speed would depend on its frequency, and the invariant speed c of special relativity would then be the upper limit of the speed of light in vacuum. [33] No variation of the speed of light with frequency has been observed in rigorous testing, putting stringent limits on the mass of the photon. [60]
The corpuscular theory of light went into abeyance, completely overshadowed by the wave theory. [ Note 3 ] This state of affairs lasted until 1905, when Einstein presented heuristic arguments that under various circumstances, such as when considering the photoelectric effect , light exhibits behaviors indicative of a particle nature.
Einstein's special theory is not the only theory that combines a form of light speed constancy with the relativity principle. A theory along the lines of that proposed by Heinrich Hertz (in 1890) [17] allows for light to be fully dragged by all objects, giving local c-constancy for all physical observers.
Measurements on light from gamma-ray bursts show that the speed of light does not vary with energy. Modern searches for Lorentz violation are scientific studies that look for deviations from Lorentz invariance or symmetry, a set of fundamental frameworks that underpin modern science and fundamental physics in particular.
At a sufficient distance, the speed at which the beam "moves" may exceed the speed of light. The lighthouse paradox is a thought experiment in which the speed of light is apparently exceeded. The rotating beam of light from a lighthouse is imagined to be swept from one object to shine on a second object. The farther the two objects are away ...
The measurements of speed of light are also mentioned only to the minimum extent, i.e. when they proved for the first time that c is finite and invariant. Innovations like the use of Foucault's rotating mirror or the Fizeau wheel are not listed here – see the article about speed of light. This timeline also ignores, for reasons of volume and ...
[B 1] [B 2] In 1890 Maurice Lévy succeeded in doing so by combining the laws of Weber and Riemann, whereby the speed of gravity is equal to the speed of light in his theory. [A 1] However, because the basic laws of Weber and others were wrong (for example, Weber's law was superseded by Maxwell's equations), those hypotheses were rejected.