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An outline of key instrumentation is shown on Process Flow Diagrams (PFD) which indicate the principal equipment and the flow of fluids in the plant. Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID) provide details of all the equipment (vessels, pumps, etc), piping and instrumentation on the plant in a symbolic and diagrammatic form.
CEM systems can also measure air flow, flue gas opacity and moisture. A monitoring system that measures particulate matter is referred to as a PEMS. In the U.S., the EPA requires a data acquisition and handling system to collect and report the data. Measurements of concentration can be converted to mass/hour by including flow rate measurements.
Global consumption of benzene, estimated at more than 40,000,000 tons in 2010, showed an unprecedented growth of more than 3,000,000 tons from the level seen in 2009. Likewise, the para-xylene consumption showed unprecedented growth in 2010, growing by 2,800,000 tons, a full ten percent growth from 2009.
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English: VB mixing diagram of benzene. The Kekulé structures are mutually transformable by the D 6h point group operations C 2, σ v and i; a linear combination produces a ground A 1g state and the first excited B 2u state. Ref. Sason S. Shaik; Phillipe C. Hiberty (2008). A Chemist's Guide to Valence Bond Theory.
In a photoionization detector, high-energy photons, typically in the vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) range, break molecules into positively charged ions. [2] As compounds enter the detector they are bombarded by high-energy UV photons and are ionized when they absorb the UV light, resulting in ejection of electrons and the formation of positively charged ions.
*** Benzene is a carcinogen (cancer-causing agent). *** Very flammable. The pure material, and any solutions containing it, constitute a fire risk. Safe handling: Benzene should NOT be used at all unless no safer alternatives are available. If benzene must be used in an experiment, it should be handled at all stages in a fume cupboard.
The image below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery that depicts the various unit processes and the flow of intermediate product streams that occurs between the inlet crude oil feedstock and the final end products. The diagram depicts only one of the literally hundreds of different oil refinery configurations.