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Genetic studies of traits and populations have been used to justify social inequalities associated with race, [7] despite the fact that patterns of human variation have been shown to be mostly clinal, [8] with human genetic code being approximately 99.6% – 99.9% identical between individuals and without clear boundaries between groups. [9] [10]
The lack of discontinuities in genetic distances between human populations, absence of discrete branches in the human species, and striking homogeneity of human beings globally, imply that there is no scientific basis for inferring races or subspecies in humans, and for most traits, there is much more variation within populations than between them.
In it, Lewontin presented an analysis of genetic diversity amongst people from different conventionally-defined races. His main finding, that there is more genetic variation within these populations than between them, [2] is considered a landmark in the study of human genetic variation and contributed to the abandonment of race as a scientific ...
In his 2003 paper, "Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy", A. W. F. Edwards argued that rather than using a locus-by-locus analysis of variation to derive taxonomy, it is possible to construct a human classification system based on characteristic genetic patterns, or clusters inferred from multilocus genetic data.
Some geneticists have determined that "human genetic variation is geographically structured" and that different geographic regions correlate with different races. [57] Meanwhile, others have claimed that the human genome is characterized by clinal changes across the globe, in relation with the "Out of Africa" theory and how migration to new ...
The informal taxonomic rank of race is variously considered equivalent or subordinate to the rank of subspecies, and the division of anatomically modern humans (H. sapiens) into subspecies is closely tied to the recognition of major racial groupings based on human genetic variation.
Scientific studies of genetic variation within and between human populations showed that the biological concept of "race" was a typological construct based on arbitrarily selected physical characteristics and did not reflect the actual genetic diversity of the human species.
Cave paintings (such as this one from France) represent a benchmark in the evolutionary history of human cognition. Victorian naturalist Charles Darwin was the first to propose the out-of-Africa hypothesis for the peopling of the world, [39] but the story of prehistoric human migration is now understood to be much more complex thanks to twenty-first-century advances in genomic sequencing.