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  2. Correlation does not imply causation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply...

    If in fact a negative correlation exists between abuse and academic performance, researchers could potentially use this knowledge of a statistical correlation to make predictions about children outside the study who experience abuse even though the study failed to provide causal evidence that abuse decreases academic performance. [19]

  3. Convergent cross mapping - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergent_cross_mapping

    Convergent cross mapping (CCM) is a statistical test for a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables that, like the Granger causality test, seeks to resolve the problem that correlation does not imply causation. [1]

  4. Matching (statistics) - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matching_(statistics)

    Matching is a statistical technique that evaluates the effect of a treatment by comparing the treated and the non-treated units in an observational study or quasi-experiment (i.e. when the treatment is not randomly assigned).

  5. Spurious relationship - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spurious_relationship

    Graphical model: Whereas a mediator is a factor in the causal chain (top), a confounder is a spurious factor incorrectly implying causation (bottom). In statistics, a spurious relationship or spurious correlation [1] [2] is a mathematical relationship in which two or more events or variables are associated but not causally related, due to either coincidence or the presence of a certain third ...

  6. Correlation function (statistical mechanics) - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_function...

    The difference in these decay behaviors, where correlations between microscopic random variables become zero versus non-zero at large distances, is one way of defining short- versus long-range order. In statistical mechanics, the correlation function is a measure of the order in a system, as characterized by a mathematical correlation function ...

  7. Causal notation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_notation

    It is also a subject of accident analysis, [4] and can be considered a prerequisite for effective policy making. To describe causal relationships between phenomena, non-quantitative visual notations are common, such as arrows, e.g. in the nitrogen cycle or many chemistry [ 5 ] [ 6 ] and mathematics [ 7 ] textbooks.

  8. Instrumental variables estimation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_variables...

    Informally, in attempting to estimate the causal effect of some variable X ("covariate" or "explanatory variable") on another Y ("dependent variable"), an instrument is a third variable Z which affects Y only through its effect on X. For example, suppose a researcher wishes to estimate the causal effect of smoking (X) on general health (Y). [5]

  9. Mediation (statistics) - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediation_(statistics)

    Simple mediation model. The independent variable causes the mediator variable; the mediator variable causes the dependent variable. In statistics, a mediation model seeks to identify and explain the mechanism or process that underlies an observed relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable via the inclusion of a third hypothetical variable, known as a mediator ...