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[web 20] [note 17] Melvin E. Spiro further explains that "desire is the cause of suffering because desire is the cause of rebirth." [85] When desire ceases, rebirth and its accompanying suffering ceases. [85] [note 18] Peter Harvey explains: Once birth has arisen, "ageing and death", and various other dukkha states follow.
Many existentialists believe suffering is necessary in order to find meaning in our lives. [36] Existential Positive Psychology is a theory dedicated to exploring the relationship between suffering and happiness and the belief that true authentic happiness can only come from experiencing pain and hardships. [37]
The cause of this suffering is attachment to, or craving for worldly pleasures of all kinds and clinging to this very existence, our "self" and the things or people we—due to our delusions—deem the cause of our respective happiness or unhappiness. The suffering ends when the craving and desire ends, or one is freed from all desires by ...
Antinatalists assert that bringing new life into a world of suffering is morally wrong, and some pessimists view suicide as a rational response in extreme circumstances; though Schopenhauer personally believed it failed to address the deeper causes of one's suffering. The roots of pessimism trace back to ancient philosophies and religions.
By social utility, he means the well-being of many people. Mill's explanation of the concept of utility in his work, Utilitarianism, is that people truly desire happiness, and since each individual desires their own happiness, it must follow that all of us desire the happiness of everyone, contributing to a larger social utility.
The social contract theory established by Epicureanism is based on mutual agreement, not divine decree. [61] He defined justice as an agreement made by people not to harm each other. [59] The point of living in a society with laws and punishments is to be protected from harm so that one is free to pursue happiness. [61]
The right course of action, according to Jeremy Bentham, is that which causes the highest amount of utility, where utility is defined as the aggregate pleasure (happiness) minus any suffering (pain) of each individual affected by the action. [57] For the purpose of calculating utility of a given action, he devised Felicific calculus.
Suffering-focused ethics are those views in ethics according to which reducing suffering is either a key priority or our only aim. Those suffering-focused ethics according to which the reduction of suffering is a key priority are pluralistic views that include additional aims, such as the prevention of other disvaluable things like inequality, or the promotion of certain valuable things, such ...